PAKISTAN
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Pakistan, officially Islamic Republic of Pakistan,
republic in southern Asia, bounded on the north and northwest by Afghanistan,
on the northeast by Jammu and Kashmir, on the
east and southeast by India, on the south by the Arabian Sea, and on the
west by Iran. The status of Jammu and Kashmir
is a matter of dispute between India and Pakistan. Until December 1971
Pakistan included the province of East Pakistan; at that time, however,
East Pakistan seceded from Pakistan and assumed the name Bangladesh. The
area of Pakistan is 796,095 sq km (307,374 sq mi), not including the section
of Jammu and Kashmir under its control.
The capital of Pakistan is Islamabad; the largest city of the country is
Karachi.
Land and Resources
Pakistan is mostly a dry region characterized by great extremes of
altitude and temperature. Its topography is partly divided by the Indus
River, which enters the country in the northeast and flows south into the
Arabian Sea. The Indus forms in general the line of demarcation between
the two main landforms of the country, namely, the Indus Plain, which extends
principally along the eastern side of the river, and the Balochistan Highlands,
which lie to the west. Three lesser landforms of Pakistan are the coastal
plain, which is a narrow strip of land bordering the Arabian Sea; the Kharan
Basin, which is west of the Balochistan Highlands; and the Thar Desert,
which straddles the border with India in the southeast.
The Indus Plain in Pakistan varies in width from about 80 to 320 km
(about 50 to 200 mi); from north to south it includes portions of two main
regions, namely, the Punjab Plain and the Sind Plain. The Punjab region
is drained by the Sutlej, Ravi, Chenab, and Jhelum rivers, which are tributaries
of the Indus; these rivers supply the irrigation system that waters the
Indus Plain.
The Balochistan Highlands contain a series of mountain ranges; among
these are the Tobakakar Range, the Siahan Range, the Sulaiman Range, and
the Kirthar Range. The highest peak in the highlands is Tirich Mir (7690
m/25,230 ft) in the Hindu Kush in the north. The Safed Koh Range is pierced
by the famed Khyber Pass on the Pakistan-Afghanistan border.
The highest peak in Pakistan is K2 (also known as Mount Godwin-Austen).
Rising 8611 m (28,250 ft) above sea level in the Karakorum Range, the peak
is located in the region of Kashmir that Pakistan
controls. K2 is the second highest mountain in the world, behind Mount
Everest.
Climate
The climate of Pakistan varies widely from place to place. In the mountain
regions of the north and west, temperatures fall below freezing during
winter; in the Indus Plain area, temperatures range between about 32°
and 49° C (90° and 120° F) in summer, and the average in winter
is about 13° C (55° F). Throughout most of Pakistan rainfall is
scarce. The Punjab region receives the most precipitation, more than 508
mm (20 in) per year. The arid regions of the southeast and southwest receive
less than 127 mm (5 in) annually. Most rain falls from July to September.
Natural Resources, Plants, and Animals
The resources of Pakistan are primarily agricultural. The mineral resources
of the country include the following: salt, chromite, coal, gypsum, limestone,
iron ore, sulfur, clay, graphite, copper, petroleum, and natural gas.
Vegetation in Pakistan varies according to the elevation. Alpine flora
grows on the higher slopes. Forests of spruce, evergreen oak, chir or cheer
pine, and a cedar known as the deodar are found at lower elevations.
Animal life abounds in Pakistan, including deer, boar, bear, crocodile,
and waterfowl. In the freshwater and saltwater areas, fish of many varieties
are found. Marine fish include herring, mackerel, sharks, and shellfish.
Population
The ethnological background of the population of Pakistan is extremely
varied, largely because the country lies in an area that was invaded repeatedly
during its long history. The people come from such ethnic stocks as the
Dravidian, Indo-Aryan, Greek, Scythian, Hun, Arab, Mongol, Persian, and
Afghan.
Population Characteristics
According to a 1993 estimate, Pakistan's
population was 125,213,732, yielding an average population density of about
157 persons per sq km (about 407 per sq mi). The country's population was
increasing in the late 1980s at a rate of
approximately 2.7 percent a year. Only about 32 percent of the people live
in urban areas.
Political Divisions
For administrative purposes, Pakistan is divided into four provinces
(Balochistan, North-West Frontier Province, Punjab, Sind); Islamabad District,
which includes the capital city of Islamabad; and federally administered
tribal areas.
Principal Cities
Pakistan's largest city is Karachi, with a population (1981)
of 5,180,562. Other significant urban centers are Lahore (2,952,689), an
industrial center; Faisalabad (1,104,209), a center of the cotton industry;
Rawalpindi (794,843), an industrial city; Hyderabad (751,529), a manufacturing
center; Multan (722,070); and Peshawar (566,248), a hub of trade with Afghanistan.
Islamabad (204,364) is the capital of Pakistan.
Religion
The leading religion of Pakistan is Islam, which is the faith of about
97 percent of the people. About four-fifths of the Muslims are Sunni, and
about one-fifth are Shiites. Hinduism and Christianity form the leading
minority religions; other religious groups include the Sikhs, the Parsees,
and a small number of Buddhists. The constitution, although defining Pakistan
as an Islamic nation, guarantees freedom of religion.
Languages
The official language of Pakistan is Urdu, but comparatively few people
use it as their first language. Punjabi is probably the most widely spoken
language, and Sindhi, Pashto, Saraiki, and Baluchi are also spoken by many
people. In addition, English is extensively used by educated people.
Education
Only about 25 percent of adult Pakistanis are literate. Although the
constitution prescribes free and compulsory primary education, this remains
a goal to be achieved. Six years has been established as the period of
primary school attendance.
In the late 1980s about 7.7 million pupils
were enrolled in primary schools, and about 2.3 million students attended
secondary schools. In addition, about 567,800 students attended institutions
of higher education. Among Pakistan's leading universities are the University
of Karachi (1951), the University of the Punjab
(1882), in Lahore; the University of Peshawar
(1950); the University of Sind (1947),
in Dadu; and the University of Agriculture (1909),
in Faisalabad.
Culture
As a Muslim nation, Pakistan is strongly influenced by the culture
and traditions of Islam. Hindu and British influences, however, are widespread
in the country.
Karachi is the seat of some of the most important libraries in Pakistan;
these include the Liaquat Memorial Library, the Central Secretariat Library,
and the University of Karachi library. Also of note are the National Archives
of Pakistan, in Islamabad, and the Punjab Public Library, in Lahore. The
National Museum of Pakistan, in Karachi, contains important materials from
the Indus Valley civilizations, as well as Buddhist and Islamic artifacts.
Cultural materials also are displayed in the Lahore Museum and the Peshawar
Museum. The Industrial and Commercial Museum, in Lahore, contains exhibits
on the manufactures of Pakistan.
Economy
The economy of Pakistan grew by 5.1 percent annually during the period
from 1965 to 1980
and by about 6 percent during the 1980s and
early 1990s. Nevertheless, in the early 1990s,
the majority of the nation's citizens remained poor and heavily dependent
on the agricultural sector for employment. This was largely a result of
the country's high rate of population increase, but political factors,
such as the war of secession waged successfully by East Pakistan (now Bangladesh)
in 1971 and a coup d'état in 1977
(see “History,” below), also slowed economic growth and modernization.
In 1992 Pakistan's gross domestic product
(GDP) was $46.1 billion.
The government of Pakistan is deeply involved in directing the country's
economy, and most major industries have been nationalized. A government
economic plan for 1978 to 1983,
however, recommended that private capital be given a greater role in the
industrial sector; the plan for 1983 to 1988
emphasized investment in hydroelectric power and rural development. The
estimated annual budget in the late 1980s
included an estimated $6.6 billion in revenue and $10 billion in expenditure.
Pakistan receives considerable economic assistance from foreign countries
and from international organizations.
Agriculture
About 27 percent of Pakistan's total land area is considered arable.
Agriculture and related activities engage about half of the work force
and provide nearly one-fourth of the GDP. By the late 1970s
an intensive land-reform effort had resulted in the expropriation of some
1.2 million hectares (some 3 million acres) from landlords, the distribution
of almost half of this to tenants, and the limitation of individual holdings
to 40 hectares (100 acres) of irrigated or 81 hectares (200 acres) of nonirrigated
land. Formerly an importer of wheat, Pakistan achieved self-sufficiency
in the grain by the mid-1970s. Principal crops
in the late 1980s (with output in metric tons)
included sugarcane, 35 million; wheat, 14 million; rice, 4.6 million; cotton
lint, 1.5 million; and corn, 1.2 million. The livestock population included
about 17.2 million cattle, 27.5 million sheep, 33 million goats, 14 million
buffalo, 3 million asses, and 150 million chickens.
Forestry and Fishing
About 4 percent of Pakistan is forested. Most of the 21.9 million cu
m (773 million cu ft) of roundwood harvested annually in the late 1980s
was used as fuel.
Fishing resources, although underdeveloped, are extensive. In the late
1980s the annual catch was about 427,800 metric
tons, most of it obtained from the Indian Ocean. Types of fish caught include
sardines, sharks, and anchovies; shrimp are also an important part of the
industry.
Mining
In the late 1980s the most important minerals
(with annual production in metric tons) included gypsum (320,000), rock
salt (321,000), limestone (5.7 million), silica sand (130,000), and coal
and lignite (2.7 million). Crude petroleum production reached about 15.1
million barrels, and production of natural gas was about 10.1 billion cu
m (about 357 billion cu ft).
Manufacturing
The manufacturing capacity of Pakistan is still small, but production
has been steadily expanding. In the early 1990s
manufacturing accounted for about 18 percent of the GDP, as compared with
14 percent in 1965. Important products include
processed foods, cotton textiles, silk and rayon cloth, refined petroleum,
cement, fertilizers, sugar, cigarettes, and chemicals. Many handicrafts,
such as pottery and carpets, also are produced.
Energy
In the late 1980s about 53 percent of
Pakistan's electricity was produced in thermal installations, and most
of the rest was generated in hydroelectric facilities, including the large
Tarbela project on the Indus River. A nuclear power plant is situated near
Karachi. Pakistan's annual output of electricity in the late 1980s
was 33.5 billion kilowatt-hours, based on an installed generating capacity
of 6.7 million kilowatts.
Currency and Banking
The basic monetary unit is the Pakistani rupee, consisting of 100 paisa
(25.083 rupee equal U.S.$1; 1992). The State
Bank of Pakistan, established in 1948, issues
banknotes; manages currency and credit, the public debt, and exchange controls;
and supervises the commercial banks. Pakistani banks were nationalized
in 1974. A number of major foreign banks maintain
offices in the country.
Foreign Trade
The foreign trade of Pakistan consists largely of the exporting of
raw materials and basic products such as cotton yarn and the importing
of manufactured products. In the late 1980s
annual exports earned about $4.4 billion and imports cost $7 billion. The
chief exports were raw cotton, cotton textiles, cotton yarn and thread,
clothing, carpets and rugs, leather, fish, and petroleum products; the
main imports were machinery, electrical equipment, petroleum products,
transportation equipment, metal and metal products, fertilizer, and foodstuffs.
Pakistan's leading trade partners included Japan, the United States, Great
Britain, Germany, Saudi Arabia, and Kuwait.
Transportation
The lack of modern transportation facilities is a major hindrance to
the development of Pakistan. Its terrain, laced with rivers and mountains,
presents formidable obstacles to internal overland transportation.
The country has about 110,130 km (about 68,430 mi) of roads, of which
52 percent are paved. The railroad network totals about 12,620 km (about
7840 mi). Karachi is the principal port; a second major port, Muhammad
bin Qasim, was opened in the early 1980s.
Pakistan International Airlines, in large part government owned, provides
overseas service to a number of countries. The main international airports
serve Karachi, Lahore, and Rawalpindi.
Communications
In the late 1980s Pakistan had about 679,400
telephones, 9.8 million radios, and 1.5 million television sets. Television
broadcasting began in Lahore in 1964 and in
Karachi in 1966. Newspapers are mainly printed
in Urdu and English. Pakistan has about 125 dailies, most with small circulations.
The major dailies are concentrated in Lahore and in Karachi.
Government
Pakistan adopted a constitution in 1973,
which was subsequently amended. Following a military coup d'état
in 1977, however, a system of martial law
was put into effect, and most aspects of the 1973
constitution were suspended. In 1985 parliamentary
government was reestablished, the constitution restored, and martial law
ended. Legislation enacted in 1991 made Sharia,
or Islamic law, the supreme law of the land.
Executive
According to the 1973 constitution, as
amended, the head of state of Pakistan is a president, elected to a five-year
term by the legislature. The chief executive official is a prime minister,
who is responsible to the legislature. The president has the power to appoint
and dismiss the prime minister and to call new elections.
Legislature
Legislative power is vested in the bicameral Federal Legislature. The
National Assembly consists of 217 members directly elected by universal
suffrage for terms of up to five years. The Senate, consisting of 87 members,
is elected indirectly by the provincial legislatures; senators serve six-year
terms.
Judiciary
The highest court in Pakistan is the Supreme Court. The judicial system
in each province is headed by a high court. There is also a federal Sharia
Court, which administers Islamic law.
Local Government
Under the 1973 constitution the four provinces
of Pakistan, headed by governors appointed by the national president, are
subdivided into division, districts, and agencies.
Political Parties
Severely limited in July 1977 and banned
outright in October 1979, political organizations
were allowed to resume their activities in December 1985.
The dominant political party after the elections of October 1990
was the Islamic Democratic Alliance; the Pakistan People's party became
the main opposition group.
Health and Welfare
Health services in Pakistan are limited by a lack of facilities. In
the late 1980s the country had about 51,000
physicians and some 64,500 hospital beds. In 1976
an old-age pension system was inaugurated, but it covers relatively few
Pakistanis.
Defense
Military service in Pakistan is voluntary. In the early 1990s
the country's armed forces had about 577,000 members, including 45,000
in the air force and 22,000 in the navy.
History
For the early history of the region now known as Pakistan, see INDUS
VALLEY CIVILIZATION; INDIA: HISTORY.
The British ruled the Indian subcontinent for nearly 200 years—from
1756 to 1947.
After the revolt in 1857, the British initiated
political reforms, allowing the formation of political parties. The Indian
National Congress, representing the overwhelming majority of Hindus, was
created in 1885. The Muslim League was formed
in 1906 to represent the Muslim minority.
When the British introduced constitutional reforms in 1909,
the Muslims demanded and acquired separate electoral rolls. This guaranteed
Muslims representation in the provincial as well as national legislatures
until the dawn of freedom in 1947.
By 1940, however, the Muslim League had
resolved to seek the partitioning of the subcontinent and the creation
of a separate Muslim state—Pakistan. During preindependence talks in 1946,
therefore, the British government found that the stand of the Muslim League
on separation and that of the Congress on the territorial unity of India
were irreconcilable. The British then decided on partition and on August
15, 1947, transferred power dividedly to India
and Pakistan. The latter, however, came into existence in two parts: West
Pakistan, as the country stands today, and East Pakistan, now known as
Bangladesh. The two were separated by 1600 km (1000 mi) of Indian territory.
Problems of Partition
The division of the subcontinent caused tremendous dislocations of
populations. Some 3.5 million Hindus and Sikhs moved from Pakistan into
India, and about 5 million Muslims migrated from India to Pakistan. The
demographic shift caused an initial bitterness between the two countries
that was further intensified over the accession of the princely states
by either country. Nearly all of these 562 widely scattered polities had
joined either India or Pakistan; the princes of Hyderabad, Junagadh, and
Kashmir, however, had chosen to join neither
country.
On August 15, 1947, these three states
became technically independent, but when the Muslim ruler of Junagadh,
with its predominantly Hindu population, joined Pakistan a month later,
India annexed his territory. Hyderabad's Muslim prince, ruling over a mostly
Hindu population, tried to postpone any decision indefinitely, but in September
1948 that issue was also settled by Indian
arms. The Hindu ruler of Kashmir, whose subjects
were 85 percent Muslim, decided to join India. Pakistan, however, questioned
his right to do so, and a war broke out between India and Pakistan. Although
the United Nations (UN) subsequently resolved that a plebiscite be held
under UN auspices to determine the future of Kashmir,
India continued to occupy about two-thirds of the state and refused to
hold a plebiscite. This deadlock, which still persists, has intensified
suspicion and antagonism between the two countries.
Prerepublican Era
The first government of Pakistan was headed by Prime Minister Liaquat
Ali Khan, with Muhammad Ali Jinnah as governor-general, and it chose Karachi
as its capital. From 1947 to 1951
the country functioned under chaotic conditions. The government endeavored
to create a new national capital, organize the bureaucracy and the armed
forces, resettle refugees, and contend with provincial politicians who
often defied its authority. Failing to offer any program of economic and
social reform, however, it did not capture the popular imagination.
In his foreign policy Liaquat established friendly relations with the
United States, when he visited President Harry S. Truman in 1950,
but he overlooked the geographical closeness of the Union of Soviet Socialist
Republics (USSR) to Pakistan and the implications of that fact for the
future security of the country. The United States visit injected bitterness
into Soviet-Pakistani relations because Liaquat had previously accepted
an invitation from Moscow that never materialized in a visit. The United
States gave no substantial aid to Pakistan until three years later, but
the USSR had been alienated.
After Liaquat was assassinated in 1951,
Khwaja Nazimuddin, an East Pakistani who had been governor-general since
Jinnah's death in 1948, became prime minister.
Unable to prevent the erosion of the Muslim League's popularity in East
Pakistan, however, he was forced to yield to another East Pakistani, Muhammad
Ali Bogra, in 1953. When the Muslim League
was nevertheless routed in East Pakistani elections in 1954,
the governor-general dissolved the constituent assembly as no longer representative.
The new assembly that met in 1955 was no longer
dominated by the Muslim League. Muhammad Ali Bogra was then replaced by
Chaudhri Muhammad Ali, a West Pakistani. At the same time, General Iskander
Mirza became governor-general.
The new constituent assembly enacted a bill, which became effective
in October 1955, integrating the four West
Pakistani provinces into one political and administrative unit. The assembly
also produced a new constitution, which was adopted on March 2, 1956.
It declared Pakistan an Islamic republic. Mirza was elected provisional
president.
Cabinet Shifts
The new charter notwithstanding, political instability continued because
no stable majority party emerged in the National Assembly. Prime Minister
Ali remained in office only until September 1956,
when he was succeeded by Huseyn Shaheed Suhrawardy, leader of the Awami
League of East Pakistan. His tenure lasted for slightly more than a year.
When President Mirza discovered that he was planning an alliance between
East and West Pakistani political forces by supporting Firoz Khan Noon,
leader of the Republican party, for the presidency, he forced Suhrawardy
to resign. The succeeding coalition government, headed by Ismail Ibrahim
Chundrigar, lasted only two months before it was replaced by a Republican
party cabinet under Noon. President Mirza, however, found that his influence
among the Republicans was diminishing and that the new prime minister had
come to an understanding with Suhrawardy. Against such a coalition Mirza
had no chance of being reelected president. Dissatisfied with parliamentary
democracy, he then proclaimed martial law on October 7, 1958,
dismissed Noon's government, and dissolved the National Assembly.
The president was supported by General Muhammad Ayub Khan, commander
in chief of the armed forces, who was named chief martial-law administrator.
Twenty days later Ayub forced the president to resign and assumed the presidency
himself.
The Ayub Years
Ayub ruled Pakistan almost absolutely for more than ten years, and
his regime made some notable achievements, although it did not eliminate
the basic problems of Pakistani society. A land reforms commission appointed
by Ayub distributed some 900,000 hectares (about 2.2 million acres) of
land among 150,000 tenants. The reforms, however, did not erase feudal
relationships in the countryside; about 6000 landlords still retained an
area three times larger than that given to the 150,000 tenants. Ayub's
regime also increased developmental funds to East Pakistan more than threefold.
This had noticeable effect on the economy of the eastern part, but the
disparity between the two sectors of Pakistan was not eliminated.
Perhaps the most pervasive of Ayub's changes was his system of Basic
Democracies. It created 80,000 basic democrats, or union councillors, who
were rural influentials or leaders of urban areas around the country. They
constituted the electoral college for presidential elections and for elections
to the national and provincial legislatures created under the constitution
promulgated by Ayub in 1962. The Basic Democratic
System had four tiers of government from the national to the local level,
and each tier was assigned certain responsibilities in administering the
rural and urban areas, such as maintenance of elementary schools, public
roads, and bridges.
Ayub also promulgated an Islamic marriage and family laws ordinance
in 1961, imposing restrictions on polygamy
and divorce and reinforcing the inheritance rights of women and minors.
For a long time Ayub maintained cordial relations with the United States,
stimulating substantial economic and military aid to Pakistan. This relationship,
however, deteriorated in 1965, when another
war with India over Kashmir broke out. The United
States then suspended military and economic aid to both countries, thus
denying Pakistan badly needed weapons. The USSR then intervened to mediate
the conflict, inviting Ayub and Prime Minister Lal Bahadur Shastri of India
to Toshkent. By the terms of the so-called Tashkent Agreement of January
1966 the two countries withdrew their forces
to prewar positions and restored diplomatic, economic, and trade relations.
Exchange programs were initiated, and the flow of capital goods to Pakistan
increased greatly.
The Tashkent Agreement and the Kashmir war,
however, generated frustration among the people and resentment against
President Ayub. Foreign Minister Zulfikar Ali Bhutto resigned his position
and agitated against Ayub's dictatorship and the “loss” of Kashmir.
Ayub tried unsuccessfully to mend his fences, and in March 1969
he resigned. Instead of transferring power to the speaker of the National
Assembly, as the constitution dictated, however, he handed it over to the
commander in chief of the army, General Agha Muhammad Yahya Khan. Yahya
assumed the presidential office and declared martial law.
Civil War
In an attempt to make his martial-law regime more acceptable, Yahya
dismissed almost 300 senior civil servants and identified 30 families that
were said to control about half of Pakistan's gross national product. To
curb their power Yahya issued an ordinance against monopolies and restrictive
trade practices in 1970. He also made commitments
to transfer power to civilian authorities, but in the process of making
this shift, his intended reforms broke down.
The greatest challenge to Pakistan's unity, however, was presented
by East Pakistan, led by Sheikh Mujibur Rahman, leader of the Awami League,
who insisted on a federation under which East Pakistan would be virtually
independent. He envisaged a federal government that would deal with defense
and foreign affairs only; even the currencies would be different, although
freely convertible. His program had great emotional appeal for East Pakistanis,
and in the election of December 1970 called
by Yahya, Mujib, as he was generally called, won by a landslide in East
Pakistan, capturing a clear majority in the National Assembly. Bhutto's
Pakistan People's party (PPP) emerged as the largest in West Pakistan.
Suspecting Mujib of secessionist politics, Yahya in March 1971
postponed indefinitely the convening of the National Assembly. Mujib in
return accused Yahya of collusion with Bhutto and established a virtually
independent government in East Pakistan. Yahya opened negotiations with
Mujib in Dhaka in mid-March, but the effort soon failed. Mujib was arrested
and brought to West Pakistan to be tried for treason. Meanwhile Pakistan's
army went into action against Mujib's civilian followers, who demanded
freedom and independence for Bangladesh (“Bengali Nation”).
There were a great many casualties during the ensuing military operations
in East Pakistan, as the Pakistani army attacked the poorly armed population.
India claimed that nearly 10 million Bengali refugees crossed its borders,
and stories of West Pakistani atrocities abounded. The Awami League leaders
took refuge in Calcutta and established a government in exile. India finally
intervened on December 3, 1971, and the Pakistani
army surrendered 13 days later. On December 20, Yahya relinquished power
to Bhutto, and in January 1972 an independent
Bangladesh came into existence. When the Commonwealth of Nations admitted
Bangladesh later that year, Pakistan withdrew from membership, not to return
until 1989. However, the Bhutto government
gave diplomatic recognition to Bangladesh in 1974.
The Bhutto Government
Under Bhutto's leadership a diminished Pakistan began to rearrange
its national life. Bhutto nationalized the basic industries, insurance
companies, domestically owned banks, and schools and colleges. He also
instituted land reforms that benefited tenants and middle-class farmers.
He removed the armed forces from the process of decision making, but to
placate the generals he allocated about 6 percent of the gross national
product to defense. In 1973 the National Assembly
adopted the country's fifth constitution. Bhutto became prime minister,
and Fazal Elahi Chaudry replaced him as president.
Although discontented, the military remained silent for some time.
Bhutto's nationalization and land reforms further earned him the enmity
of the entrepreneurial and capitalist class, and the religious elements
saw in his socialism an enemy of Islam. His decisive flaw, however, was
his inability to deal constructively with the opposition. His rule grew
heavy-handed. In general elections in March 1977
nine opposition parties united in the Pakistan National Alliance (PNA)
to run against Bhutto's PPP. Losing in three of the four provinces, the
PNA alleged that Bhutto had rigged the vote. It boycotted the provincial
elections a few days later and organized demonstrations throughout the
country that lasted for six weeks.
Zia Regime
When the situation seemed to be deadlocked, the army chief of staff,
General Muhammad Zia Ul-Haq, staged a coup on July 5, 1977,
and imposed another martial-law regime. Bhutto was tried for political
murder and was found guilty; he was hanged on April 4, 1979.
Zia formally assumed the presidency in 1978
and established the Sharia (Islamic law) as the law of the land. The constitution
of 1973 was accordingly amended (1979),
and benches were constituted at the courts to exercise Islamic judicial
review. Interest-free banking was initiated, and maximum penalties were
provided for adultery, defamation, theft, and consumption of alcohol.
On March 24, 1981, Zia issued a provisional
constitution order, operative until the lifting of martial law in the future.
It envisaged the appointment of two vice presidents and allowed political
parties approved by the election commission before September 30, 1979,
to function. All other parties, including the PPP, now led by Bhutto's
widow and daughter, were dissolved.
Pakistan was greatly affected by the Soviet intervention in Afghanistan
in December 1979; by 1984
some 3 million Afghan refugees were living along Pakistan's border with
Afghanistan, supported by the government and by international relief agencies.
In September 1981 Zia accepted a six-year
economic and military aid package (worth $3.2 billion) from the United
States. After a referendum in December 1984
endorsed Zia's Islamic-law policies and the extension of his presidency
until 1990, Zia permitted elections for parliament
in February 1985. A civilian cabinet took
office in April, and martial law ended in December. Zia, however, was dissatisfied,
and in May 1988 he dissolved the government
and ordered new elections. Three months later he was killed in an airplane
crash, and a caretaker military regime took power.
Recent Developments
A civil servant, Ghulam Ishaq Khan, was appointed president, and Benazir
Bhutto became prime minister after her PPP won the general elections in
November 1988. She was the first woman to
head a modern Islamic state. In August 1990
President Ishaq Khan dismissed her government, charging misconduct, and
declared a state of emergency. Bhutto and the PPP lost the October elections
after she was arrested for corruption and abuse of power. The new prime
minister, Nawaz Sharif, head of the Islamic Democratic Alliance, introduced
a program of privatizing state enterprises and encouraging foreign investment.
He also promised to bring the country back to Islamic law and to ease continuing
tensions with India over Kashmir. The charges
against Bhutto were resolved, and she returned to lead the opposition.
In April 1993 Ishaq Khan once again used
his presidential power, this time to dismiss Sharif and to dissolve parliament.
However, Sharif appealed to the Supreme Court of Pakistan, and in May the
court stated that Kahn's actions were unconstitutional, and the court reinstated
Sharif as prime minister. Sharif and Kahn subsequently became embroiled
in a power struggle that paralyzed the Pakistani government. In an agreement
designed to end the stalemate, Sharif and Kahn resigned together in July
1993, and elections were held in October of
that year. Bhutto's PPP won a plurality in the parliamentary elections,
and Bhutto was again named prime minister.
With Bhutto in office, relations between India and Pakistan became
more tense. Bhutto openly supported the militant Muslim rebels in Indian
Kashmir that have been involved in sporadic
fighting against the Indian army. She also announced Pakistan would continue
with its nuclear weapons development program, raising concerns that a nuclear
arms race could start between Pakistan and India, which has had nuclear
weapons since the 1970s.
